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It is a fairly well-known fact among psycholinguists and speech therapists that the human ear is far more sensitive to discrete changes in amplitude at low-volume levels than it is at high-volume levels, a fact not missed by the network designers tasked with optimizing the performance of digital carrier systems intended for voice transport Instead of using a linear scale for digitally encoding the PAM samples, they designed and employed a nonlinear scale that is weighted with much more granularity at low volume levels that is, close to the zero line than at the higher amplitude levels In other words, the values are extremely close together near the x-axis and get farther and farther apart as they travel up and down the y-axis.

This nonlinear approach keeps the quantizing noise to a minimum at the low-amplitude levels where hearing sensitivity is the highest, and allows it to creep up at the higher amplitudes, where the human ear is less sensitive to its presence It turns out that this is not a problem, because the inherent shortcomings of the mechanical equipment (microphones, speakers, the circuit itself) introduce slight distortions at high-amplitude levels that hide the effect of the nonlinear quantizing scale This technique of compressing the values of the PAM samples to make them fit the nonlinear quantizing scale results in a bandwidth savings of more than 30 percent In fact, the actual process is called companding, because the sample is first compressed for transmission, then expanded for reception at the far end, hence the term The actual graph scale is divided into 255 distinct values above and below the zero line.

L1 10M V(13)

taxes. The 2002 income statement for Cisco (see Exhibit 5-2) shows income before provision of income taxes of $2710, ($874), and $4343 million for 2002, 2001, and 2000 respectively, and a provision for income taxes of $817, $140, and $1675 million. Since Cisco had a loss in 2001, the rate calculation for that year is not meaningful. The tax rate for 2000 was ($1675/$4343) 38.57 percent, and for 2002 it was ($817/ $2710) 30.15 percent. The average tax rate for these two years is 34.36 percent.

In North America and Japan, the encoding scheme is known as m-Law (Mu-Law); the rest of the world relies on a slightly different standard known as A-Law There are eight segments above the line and eight below (one of which is the shared zero point); each segment, in turn, is subdivided into 16 steps A bit of binary mathematics now allows us to convert the quantized amplitude samples into an eight-bit value for transmission For the sake of demonstration, let s consider a negative sample that falls into the.

Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website.

B1 V=(V(5)-V(7)) > 0 2.5 : -2.5

The input relating to the tax rate for the ValuePro 2002 software on the general input screen is: Tax Rate (percent) 34.36 percent

4

than more, a good thing in light of the industry s current troubles. One could argue that well-intended regulatory strictures have in fact done damage. Consider the case of WorldCom once again. The company s original plan in the late 1990s was to challenge local service providers all over the world by creating a broadband voice and data IP network through acquisitions and mergers. The regulators, concerned by WorldCom s aggressive plans, felt that the intended company looked too much like a monopoly. They forced the divestiture of MCI s internet company to Cable & Wireless and rejected the proposed merger with Sprint because of fears that they would control 80 percent of the long-distance market. This decision was made while long-distance revenues were plummeting due to the influence of such disruptive technologies as multichannel optical transport and IP. The result is two badly weakened companies that have not yet recovered and may not. Ironically, they could now be prime acquisition targets for the ILECs. (Although, at the time of this writing, competitors are calling for the dismemberment of MCI over arguments that their reentry into the market would give them an unfair competitive advantage, particularly in light of their unethical behavior). Another example is AT&T itself. There was a huge expectation that AT&T would be a big winner in the local broadband access game following its acquisitions of cable properties for its plans to deliver high-speed Internet and interactive services. Many analysts expected a market cross-invasion between the ILECs and cable providers, but it has only

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